Last time we discovered how to create culture-ready clonal fragments known as ramets, whereas herein we commence to discover the fascinating parasites that view reef organisms as an ecological niche to be exploited for sustenance.

Imported SPS corals were typically associated with symbiotic acropora crabs of the genera Tetralia (Eumalacostraca: Tetraliidae) and Trapezia (Trapeziidae) and the vast majority were parasite-free (Fig 1.). Nowadays, such crustaceans are routinely dissociated when corals are prophylactically treated for pests, which include detrimental stowaway eumalacostracan xanthid or gorilla crabs of the families Oziidae, Pilumnidae, or Xanthidae (Fig 2.; Fig 3.). Numerous kinds of crabs become much larger which alters their dietary preferences. Essentially omnivorous, several will try to catch fish swimming overhead. They are easily trapped overnight in a baited shot glass leant against a rock, insofar as the crab descends the rock into the glass where the sheer sides prevent its escape (John 2017). Painstakingly identify and reunite symbiotic acropora crabs with branching SPS colonies.

Fig 1. Symbiotic acropora crabs (Tetralia cavimana; Eumalacostraca: Tetraliidae) and species of Trapezia (Trapeziidae) inhabit SPS coral mucus where they undertake housekeeping and protective roles (Helgason 2015).

Cultured Indonesian SPS corals appear to be inundated with parasites which was not always the case. Luckily, two prophylactic remedies made from natural ingredients irritate colonies which elicits the production and sloughing of surplus mucus that detaches most “hitchhikers”. Retrieve from the bottom of treatment vessels and identify. Adhere to the manufacturer’s instructions of submersion prophylactics, because lessening the volumes and changing doses may expose corals to parasite-derived toxins (Fig 4.; Henschen, personal communication). Alas, impervious cysts and eggs will require gentle toothbrushing.

Fig 2. A small “hitchhiking” example of Pilumnus cf. vespertilio (Eumalacostraca: Pilumnidae) which is remarkably different from beneficial Tetralia (Eumalacostraca: Tetraliidae; Fig 1.).

Bioremediation has been used to rid systems of unwanted guests where a parasite’s predator hunts and consumes them and their eggs. Most are fish whose personalities are unique (Budaev & Brown 2011; Tosetto et al. 2017) with conspecific traits yet their preferences may differ from day to day. Fish pollute and those that favor the same diet will likely incite aggression. So you have one chance to buy the right fish that may just happen to like eating the pest that you are trying to control. Bioremediation often becomes like, “I know an old woman who swallowed a fly”.

Fig 3. An adult gorilla crab of the genus Pilumnus (Eumalacostraca: Pilumnidae).

Fig 4. ReVive coral cleaner by Two Little Fishes and Coral Dip from Coral RX Pro are nontoxic prophylactics made from natural ingredients that proficiently clear pests and parasites from new specimens.

There are several organisms that proliferate wildly during eutrophication yet remain as a manageable subpopulation throughout oligotrophy. SPS reefs demand sustained ideal conditions and as such, many typical pests are present but remain in proportion to reef biota.

Sessile marine organisms including SPS corals use slime nets to capture their food, while gastropod vermetid snails proliferate unabated throughout nutrient enrichment. Slimes comprise amino acids, lipids, monosaccharides, polysaccharides, and proteins where net-bound prey are drawn into mouths (Lewis & Price 1975; Ducklow & Mitchell 1979; Ferrier-Pagès et al. 1998; Kappner et al. 2000; Houlbrèque & Ferrier‐Pagès 2009). Hence coral heterotrophy is impeded by vermetid snails (Fig 7.).

The abundance of photosynthetic acoelomorphan flatworms (Acoelomorpha: Convolutidae) is directly proportional to the trophic status of the system where they smother corals to requisition light, capture their prey, and cause irritation (Fig 10.; Wijgerde 2002; Wijgerde et al. 2011). The population dynamics of Convolutriloba retrogemma erroneously referred to as “red planaria” ensures a continual state of death and renewal, where the former liberates toxins (Fig 8.; Fig 9.). They attain 2 to 6 millimeters in length (Bourlat & Hejnol 2014) with three distinguishing posterior lobes (Akesson et al. 2001), while photosynthate is acquired from their parenchyma-nurtured zooxanthellae of the genus Tetraselmis (Chlorodendrophyceae: Chlorodendraceae).

Fig 5. A reef infested with eutrophication-induced dinoflagellates and “glass” anemones where mucus and polysaccharide-bound bubbles are peculiar to free-living dinoflagellates (Durán-Riveroll et al. 2019).

Fig 6. “Glass anemones” of the genus Exaiptasia in a captive reef.

Fig 7. A vermetid snail is a sessile marine gastropod that expels a prey-capturing slime net, where eutrophication causes population explosions which weakens aesthetics during feeds. Purchasing rock from established reefs may not be a reliable option.

Adult C. macropyga develop up to nine posterior lobes (Shannon & Achatz 2007) which utilize a spheroidal gravity-sensing organ called a statocyst (Lii & Achatz 2007; Bourlat & Hejnol 2014), where strontium may be necessary for proper statocyst function and development (Bidwell et al. 1986; Wiederhold et al. 1989; Holmes-Farley 2003). See part VIII. Convolutidae reproduce both sexually and asexually where the former is analogous to mammalian and mollusk mating, albeit several are hermaphrodites, eggs are deposited in a gelatinous matrix through the mouth or from a specialized maternal gonopore. Neoblast stem cells regenerate an entire organism from a single cell (Altincicek & Vilcinskas 2008) which bud from the rear of C. retrogemma during binary fission (Bourlat & Hejnol 2014).

Bioremediation will be disappointing unless the aquarist introduces a velvet blue sea slug which starve once their food is expended (Fig 11.). However, Flatworm eXit from Salifert^® is efficacious while its therapeutic range is suitably narrow to be recommended here, because there are very few options for controlling these persistent and apparently unpalatable pests where praziquantel proves non-efficacious (Fig 12.).

Fig 8. Convolutriloba retrogemma.

Fig 9. A population of basking flatworms at various stages of maturity. Aslett ©.

Fig 10. A micrograph of bubble coral of the genus Plerogyra (Hexacorallia: Plerogyridae) parasitised by mucus-consuming flatworms of the genus Waminoa, which contain zooxanthellae from two genera and engulf zooplankton destined for their host. Waminoa proliferate to smother the coral and commandeer its light (Wijgerde 2002; Wijgerde et al. 2011).

Fig 11. Velvet blue sea slugs (Chelidonura varians; Heterobranchia: Aglajidae) only devour Convolutidae which they need to survive.

There are several kinds of small anemone that tend to proliferate and sting nearby colonies. Most like mushrooms reproduce using pedal laceration where a trail of neoblast-comprising flesh is discarded as they travel across substratum. Such activity increases during prolonged darkness where short photoperiods may expedite reproduction, while eutrophication and/or iron (Fe) enrichment may explain why anemones proliferate uncontrollably (Work et al. 2018). So perform Fe supplementation judiciously. “Glass” Exaiptasia diaphana (Hexacorallia: Aiptasiidae) and miniature bubble tip majano (Anemonia manjano; Hexacorallia: Actinioidea) are the commonest bothersome anemones. The former are ubiquitous in reef ecosystems (Brough 1999; Baumgarten et al. 2015) where they nurture clusters of the zooxanthellae: Breviolum minutum, Symbiodinium microadriaticum, and Durusdinium trenchii (Rhyne et al. 2004; Tivey et al. 2022) which confer a resilience to bleaching (LaJeunesse et al. 2018).

Fig 12. Flatworm eXit by Salifert® is a semi-selective chemotherapeutic that eradicates Convolutidae.

Fig 13. Peppermint shrimp (Lysmata wurdemanni; Eumalacostraca: Lysmatidae) efficiently eradicate nuisance anemones.

Fig 14. Bristle-tail filefish (Acreichthys tomentosus; Teleostei: Monacanthidae) likely consume troublesome anemones.

“Glass” anemones inhabit rock recesses into which they withdraw at a hint of movement, and thus Peter Wilkens simply sealed their fissures with reef putty (Delbeek & sprung 2005). Fortuitously, these polyp morphotypes are susceptible to one of the rarest forms of efficacious bioremediation using peppermint shrimp (Lysmata wurdemanni; Eumalacostraca: Lysmatidae) which remain small yet are prone to pilfering food from fleshy sessile invertebrates. However, unlike fish, they are less likely to ignore pest anemones and begin nibbling at ornamental polyps, although they are partial to yellow ahermatypic Parazoanthus species (Hexacorallia: Parazoanthidae; Fig 13.).

Less reliable and somewhat risky bioremediation might be possible with bristle-tail filefish (Acreichthys tomentosus; Teleostei: Monacanthidae), copperband butterflyfish (Chelmon rostratus; Teleostei: Chaetodontidae), or longnose butterflyfish (Forcipiger flavissimus; Teleostei: Chaetodontidae; Figs 14. to 16.).

Fig 15. Copperband butterflyfish (Chelmon rostratus; Teleostei: Chaetodontidae) ostensibly eat non-ornamental anemones.

Fig 16. Longnose butterflyfish (Forcipiger flavissimus; Teleostei: Chaetodontidae) may be effective bioremediators of nuisance anemones.

Fig 17. The ventrum of a partially regenerated cushion starfish of the genus Asterina.

Small and often green cushion sea stars of the genus Asterina are considered by many “reefers” as a nuisance that will proliferate unabated and overwhelm the display (Fig 18.). Most are beneficial omnivores whose profusion is influenced by “algal” abundance (Basch 1996) yet peer-reviewed literature linking their numbers with pollution is lacking. However, a minority will prey on corals and seahorses (Whitby 2009; Reefs.com 2020; Weiss 2020). They can reproduce sexually and asexually using fissiparity where their central disc splits in half leaving two sea stars with odd numbers of legs, while their regeneration takes close to a year (Fig 17.). Entirely male populations are redolent of protandry where males transform into females (Achituv & Sher 1991) while others appear hermaphroditic which may cross- or self-fertilize (James & Pearse 1969; Strathmann et al. 1984; Achituv & Sher 1991). They have been observed climbing aquarium glass and broadcasting their gametes (Mita et al. 2009). Physical removal is an option but the author has kept reefs with one or two of these starfish without a plague, whereas harlequin shrimp (Hymenocera picta; Multicrustacea: Palaemonidae) are exquisitely ornate proficient bioremediators that starve once their food is exhausted (Fig 19.).

Fig 18. A cushion sea star of the genus Asterina on an aquarist’s finger.

Fig 19. Harlequin shrimp (Hymenocera picta; Multicrustacea: Palaemonidae) are obligate predators of cushion starfish.

Fig 20. A marine fireworm, Hermodice carunculata (Errantia: Amphinomidae) with a conspicuous taxon-discerning anterior caruncle [Ca] (McCaulley 2016).

Fig 21. A hermit crab inhabiting the shell of a corallivorous snail of the genus Drupella.

Fig 22. A shell of corallivorous Coralliophila (Coralliophila) abbreviata which were reclassified as C. erosa (Kaullysing et al. 2019; MolluscaBase 2019). Responsibly sourced from a historic collection, Aslett ©.

Most polychaetes (bristleworms) are harmless detritivores, yet some are nocturnal predators like the amphinomid fireworm, Hermodice carunculata (Errantia) which carry throughout winter subdermal static (VBNC) populations of the SPS coral-bleaching bacteria Vibrio mediterranei. Worms thus act as reservoirs for reinfection the following spring (Toren et al. 1998; Ben-Haim et al. 1999; Banin et al. 2000; Banin et al. 2001; Ben-Haim et al. 2002; Shimek 2003; Sussman et al. 2003; Rosenberg & Falkovitz 2004; McCaulley 2016). Fireworms are evident thanks to their anterior fleshy caruncle (Fig 20.; Shimek 2003; McCaulley 2016) while several do not harm corals (McCaulley 2016). Polychaetes can be caught nocturnally in a baited transparent sleeve from a ballpoint pen resting on substrate but handle them with care because their chaetae are like shards of glass that lacerate and irritate, whereas fireworms and others sting (Shimek 2003; McCaulley 2016). Most coral pathogens including V. mediterranei are controlled by steady year-round temperatures of 23.5^oC (Kuta & Richardson 1996; Ben-Haim & Rosenberg 2002; Voss & Richardson 2006; Vega Thurber et al. 2014). Corals grow faster (Ruiz-Diaz et al. 2022, cited in Toledo-Hernandez et al. 2023) and some nuisance toxigenic dinoflagellates become dormant (Fig 5.; Accoroni & Totti 2016). DO, pH, and ORP are optimized to boot, so construct and use an evaporative chiller but remember to kill weekly with a 10-minute soak in fresh reverse osmosis (R/O) water. See Part II.

Some molluscs that prey upon SPS colonies are vectors for known microorganisms such as snails of the genus Drupella which carry the ciliated chromists, Porpostoma guamensis that are present in lesions, albeit do not cause, brown band disease of acroporids (Fig 21.; Sweet & Bythell 2012; Sweet et al. 2013). The obligate corallivorous snails, Coralliophila erosa are reservoirs of the common human gut commensal and bacterial terrestrial contaminant, Serratia marcescens that instigates acorporid serriatosis (APS; white pox; WPX) which affects endangered Acropora palmata (elkhorn; Fig 22.; Fig 23.; Patterson et al. 2002; Ho 2011; Sutherland et al. 2011; Gignoux-Wolfsohn et al. 2012).

Fig 23. Carnivorous snails of the genus cf. Coralliophila (Caenogastropoda: Muricidae) infesting a colony of Porites (Hexacorallia: Poritidae).

The organisms discussed thus far initiate disturbances in most reefs, whilst next we shine a spotlight on pests that specifically target SPS corals.

To learn more, visit the Reef Ranch website.

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